Cybersecurity education showdown: a comparative analysis of K-12 education systems in the United States, the European Union and China

Cybersecurity has become a critical aspect of modern life, essential for safeguarding infrastructure, maintaining data integrity, and addressing a growing array of threats. As cyberhygiene and cybersecurity literacy emerge as indispensable skills, K-12 education plays a pivotal role in cultivating a cybersecurity culture while simultaneously preparing the next generation of professionals. To delve into this role, our study conducts a comparative analysis of K-12 cybersecurity education in the United States, the European Union (with a focus on Germany, Estonia, France, and especially Italy), and the People’s Republic of China, highlighting their legal frameworks, funding mechanisms, and initiatives aimed at raising public awareness. The findings provide insights into the strengths and gaps in global efforts to integrate cybersecurity into education, offering guidance for policymakers and educators seeking to advance this crucial field. In particular, this work underscores the importance of balancing centralized policies with localized flexibility to create inclusive, adaptative, and dynamic cybersecurity education ecosystems.